tempcolon Confronting Colonialism and Imperialism in...

Confronting Colonialism in A Tempest A Tempest by Aime Cesaire is an attempt to confront and rewrite the idea of colonialism as presented in Shakespeare’s The Tempest. He is successful at this attempt by changing the point of view of the story. Cesaire transforms the characters and transposes the scenes to reveal Shakespeare’s Prospero as the exploitative European power and Caliban and Ariel as the exploited natives. Cesaire’s A Tempest is an effective response to Shakespeare’s The Tempest because he interprets it from the perspective of the colonized and raises a conflict with Shakespeare as an icon of the literary canon. In The Tempest by William Shakespeare one might argue that colonialism is a reoccurring†¦show more content†¦Prospero, Trinculo and Stephano seek power assuming that no one will be able to triumph over them. Prospero later supports the theme of colonialism when he introduces the idea for Miranda and Ferdinand to go back to Europe and rule. This relates to the external influence that Europe had on the colonized areas although some leaders withdrew from the island. This adds to the controversy of colonization in The Tempest. The primary reason that colonization in The Tempest has become controversial is because Shakespeare directly relates it to reforming the â€Å"savage† natives of a land that is undiscovered by Europeans. It has also been suggested that Shakespeare’s The Tempest was directly influenced by a publication and three pamphlets that were widely known and were circulating during the time that The Tempest was written that give a detailed account on a storm that prevented the arrival of colonists to Virginia in 1609 (Hawkes). The â€Å"Sea Adventure† was a fleet that carried the admiral Sir John Somers and the future governor of Virginia Sir George Somers and was separated from the other eight ships by a fierce storm off the coast of Bermuda. This relates to Shakespeare’s The Tempest in that the ship had Alonso, king of Naples and Ferdinand the prince of Naples along with other noblemen. The Tempest also relates to the story of the â€Å"Sea Adventure† by the description of the island that the shipwrecked men land in. William Strachey, who writes the letter about the

Letter Letter From A Graduate Program - 1646 Words

Leslie Perez Cazarez CHM 121.02 Dear Friend in Australia: In this paper I will address my major, potential minor, rule of chemistry in my future endeavors. A year ago I started conducting a research when I started applying to colleges. I did this research to figure out what universities were my top choices and what majors I was interesting in. I looked up Spanish majors, Engineering, Business, and I found this cool major, Food Science and Technology. I have to tell you that this is one of the coolest majors I have heard of. Not many universities offer this major so I looked up what schools offered this major and that they were nearby because I did not want to go too far away from home and guess what? Remember how I told I wanted to be a†¦show more content†¦First I want to start with Food Science. This is the application of science and technology to the manufacturing, production, processing, product development, packaging, preparation, evaluation, distribution, utilization, and safety of food products. Food Science studies everythi ng that happens to food from the time it leaves the farm, field, or waters until, we, the consumers buy it. Doesn’t it sound like an interesting major? And let me keep explaining you. Food scientists learn how to apply chemistry, engineering, microbiology, biochemistry, and other basic and applied sciences, toxicology, and management as well as industrial and practical aspects to the production, development, processing, preservation, evaluation, distribution, storage, sanitation, and marketing of foods. Great right? Next I want to tell you a little bit more about Culinology. Culinology is the blending of culinary arts and food science and technology (fresnostate.edu). Culinologists are specialized food scientists who develop new food products for food companies, they work in a variety of food processing and culinary settings (fresnostate.edu) which to me, it sounds like the perfect job. But I have also found out on my research how with a Food Science and Technology degree I c an work for the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) or the USDA

Somalias Struggle for Power Essay example - 1524 Words

Somalia’s struggle for power to establish a sovereign Somali state has raised international concerns of terrorism, piracy, human trafficking and famine causing instability locally and throughout the Horn of Africa. Although U.S. backed Somali Federal Government (SFG) has had some recent success against the al Qaeda (AQ) linked al-Shabaab, Somalia continue to face local and regional border disputes. Somalia has historically relied on outside actors who later abandoned Somalia due to a shift in foreign policy and interest. This paper will prove that the power for struggle in Somalia is the root cause of instability in Somalia and throughout the Horn of Africa. This will be explored by examining Somali’s regional relations, U.S and†¦show more content†¦Ethiopia’s armed responses only strengthen Mohammed’s cause in the Ogaden region. The Mad Mohammed’s Dervish campaigns lasted from 1899 – 1904, until the British, and Ethiopian troops, an d Somali’s who were against Mohammed’s Dervish tactics, mounted various successful campaigns against Mohammed (Gorman, 1981). With Mohammed’s strength nearly eliminated, he agreed to a peace deal in 1904. Mohammed and his followers were allowed to settle in the northern part of Italian Somalia where he was recognized as the ruler by the Europeans. Regardless of the peace deal, Mohammed’s cause began to draw support from other Somali tribes and the fighting continued until his natural death in 1920. Like Gran, Mohammed had failed to unite Somali clans; however the two Somali nationalists have laid a physiological impact on Somali’s against Ethiopians and foreigners involved with the Somali power struggle (Gorman, 1981) (Ottaway, 1982). Later British Somalia and Italian Somalia joined to form the Republic of Somalia in June 1960. Somali’s now could claim statehood. During the early years of independence, tensions continued over contested area s in the Northern Front District with Kenya and in the Ogaden with Ethiopia. (Gorman, 1981) (Ottaway, 1982) As Somalia looked to establish itself as a country they allied with Russia to help build Somalia’s Military, which led to a military coup in 1969. Following the military coup, Somalia wasShow MoreRelatedSomali The Somali Banking System1456 Words   |  6 Pagesreconstruct itself 2. Because of this, counterfeit currency makes up a sizable proportion of the money in circulation, and most Somalis rely on remittances transferred from family members abroad to survive. In fact, it is estimated that around 45% of Somalia’s economy is made up of these remittances that come from places like Kenya, Ethiopia, and the United States, where large populations of Somali refugees and immigrants currently live3. Not surprisingly, the lack of a banking system has led to currencyRead More The Collapse of Somalia and Economic Considerations Essay4780 Words   |  20 Pages By African standards, Somalia is a homogenous state made up of a single ethnicity, religion and culture. This led to a relatively peaceful history until Somalia was colonized by the British, French, and Italians in the 19th century. However, Somalia’s single ethnicity is broken into different clans, and sub-clans and this region’s lack of natural resources led to a fracturing of society, violence, and eventually civil war at the end of the 20th century. Despite the deterioration of society andRead MoreIrregular Warfare Strategy for Somalia696 Words   |  3 PagesIntroduction The use of Irregular Warfare has been ongoing for years around the world. Irregular warfare is described as a violent struggle among state and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations. I will discuss where the U.S. may apply military force in conjunction with other means of national power to stabilize the nation of Somalia. I will also discuss why it would be considered as an Irregular Warfare environment. Body Somalia gained its independence fromRead More20th Century Somalia1656 Words   |  7 Pagesthe longest coastline on the continent, its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains, and highlands. It is made up of the former British Protectorate of Somaliland and Italy’s former Trust Territory of Somalia. Somalia’s modern history began in the late 1800’s, when European powers began to trade and settle in the Somalia area. These events and the events that occurred during the 20th century helped shape the modern Somalia government and culture today. In 1886, the British gained control overRead MoreState Instability in Somalia4149 Words   |  17 Pagesdeath of hundreds of thousands of civilians due to the clan based Somali Civil War as well as violent conflict between the countries two Islamic sects. A bitter US invasion which resulted in the famed Black Hawk occurrence only served to aggravate Somalia’s ties with international community. With over 1 million displaced citizens, peacekeepers from the United Nations, the United States and Europe, the African Union, among others, have intervened in the conflict, at times with slight success, but haveRead MoreEssay on Al-Shabaab: African Terrorist Organization1834 Words   |  8 Pagesas they have the motive to gain power over a territory by overthrowing the government. The Al-Shabaab is suspected to have taken part in many terrorist attacks, including the 1998 United States embassies bombings. The motive behind their violence is their goal of creating an Islamic state in Somalia, which they believe is morally justified by the ideological beliefs. An important psychological factor behind their violence is the struggle to gain power over Somalia’s regions and the death of theirRead MoreFailed States and Civil Wars: Somalia Essay2379 Words   |  10 Pagesanarchy and civil war. Early Somalia established itself as a merchant state. Its key geographical location by the natural strait between the Horn of Africa and Yemen made it a focal point for trade.This essay will explore the history of internal struggles of the Somalilands and its many wars. It will investigate the colonial influences and conflicts between Somalia and its imperial occupiers and how these influences set the stage for future conflicts between the clans. Also, it will attempt to defineRead MoreDeveloping Countries Research Paper2963 Words   |  12 Pagesof Africa. It is bordered by Kenya in the south, Ethiopia in the west and Gulf of Aden to the north. It covers a land mass similar to the size of Texas and it is mostly flat. In order to acutely understand this land, it is necessary to trace Somalia’s turbulent history. There are few written accounts of Ancient Somalia as this knowledge was mainly passed on verbally. However, inhabitant’s existence can be linked as far back as 2200 B.C. when nomads roamed the region. Early on this area wasRead MoreThe Oppression of Women1323 Words   |  5 Pagestheir ancestries until they find a common forefather. Ayaan Hirsi Ali’s father, Hirsi Magan Isse, was an important member of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front. Soon after being born, her father was imprisoned after voicing his opposing views on Somalia’s Siad Barre government. Her grandmother raught her the importance of her background but also, the life Ayaan would be forced to live. Women in Islam are guided under the personal law by the Quaran. These laws and customs in their culture impactRead MoreThe Influence of Ethiopia on Regional Stability in the Horn of Africa1800 Words   |  8 Pagesdiversity of sub-cultures due to the vast amount of beliefs, customs, and norms associated with each ethnic, religious, and tribal group. This diverse culture directly affects Ethiopia’s actions internally and toward surrounding HOA countries due to struggles with government stability and threat of revolutions. The displacement of hundreds of thousands of refugees along the Ethiopian borders further spread Ethiopian culture and people into other countries. Eritrea’s independence caused Ethiopia

Dream Interpretation Informative Speech Essay - 1675 Words

Name: Holly McCallen SPCH 2010-103 Informative Speech Date: TITLE: Dream Interpretation Type of Informative Speech: Speech Design: Categorical I. Introduction A. Attention Material: â€Å"Dreams feel weird while we are in them. It’s only when we wake up that we realize something was actually strange (Inception, the movie).† Have you ever been curious about what your dreams actually mean? B. Credibility material: There have been many times in my life where I have either woke up in the middle of the night from a horrible nightmare or woke up in the morning trying to recall my dreams. I have spent a lot of time researching what my dreams mean. C. Statement of Relevance: Dreams are something we all experience†¦show more content†¦Main Point #2: Facts about Dreams 1. Your body goes through 4 stages of sleep. REM (rapid eye movement) is the 4th stage and when you do most of your dreaming. â€Å"While you are dreaming, your body undergoes noticeable changes. Your adrenaline rises, your blood pressure increases, and you heart beats faster. Given this hyperactivity, it should be no surprise how someone with a weak heart can die in their sleep (dreammoods.com).† It usually takes 30-90 minutes to reach REM, a person goes in and out of REM 4-7 times a night. During REM your eyes rapidly move back and forth under the eyelids. Our bodies are completely immobile and muscles are relaxed. You may shift around in your sleep but when in REM you are completely still. 2. Dreammoods.com states that Researchers have found why dreaming is so important and if you do not enter the dream phase it causes irritability and anxiety. They performed a study, where they would wake up a person right before they entered the REM stage, and then let the person fall back asleep, and then wake them up again and do this several times during the night. They repeated this over several nights. They then observed the subjects doing everyday activities and found they were disoriented, crabby, and quick tempered. Dreaming is necessary and helps to recharge the mind and visualize the body. 3. Acc ording to the site BoredPanda.com, while someone is dreamingShow MoreRelatedInformative Speech793 Words   |  4 PagesA List of Informative Speech Topics: Pick Only Awesome Ideas! Just when you thing youre way past through the question How to write an essay?, another one comes. Thats the thing students desperately Google like What is a informative speech? – and, believe experts, this is something youll definitely need some professional help in. Informative speaking is a speech on completely new issue. Tell your audience something they have never known! Now that you know the answer to the question â€Å"WhatRead MoreHow Art Is Art As An Individual s Recreation Of Nature1429 Words   |  6 Pagespainted) was a significant year in the United States in terms of racial tension and progress. 1963 was the height of the Civil Rights Movement and during this year Martin Luther King Jr. wrote his Letter from Birmingham Jail, delivered his â€Å"I Have a Dream speech† and John F. Kennedy was assassinated. During this year, many events also took place with the Feminist Movement such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique. These are just a few events that took place in 1963. ByRead MoreScholar Critic1446 Words   |  6 PagesNovelty for the sake of novelty is not and should not be the aim of the researcher. Bateson is not at his best as a theorist and the least satisfactory of his chapters â€Å"Sense of Fact†, â€Å"The literary object†, â€Å"Works of Reference†, â€Å"Style†, â€Å"Interpretation† and â€Å"Literary History.† Bateson borrowed the phrase â€Å"Sense of Fact† from T. S. Eliot. Beginning with the discussion of research from undergraduate studies, Bateson moves on to distinguish research and criticism - the two essential qualitiesRead MoreAn Example Of Genus Deliberativum Essay1891 Words   |  8 Pages Out of the three genus causarum: genus deliberativum, genus indiciale, and genus demonstrativum, I argue that Williamson’s speech is an example of genus deliberativum. According to Roland Barthes’ rhetorical tree, there are six attributes assigned to the oratorical genres: audience, end, subject, time, reasoning, commonplaces. For the deliberative genre, the audience is members of an assembly,† the end is â€Å"to persuade/dissuade,† the subject is â€Å"useful/harmful,† the time is â€Å"future,† the reasoningRead MoreInformative Speech on Dreams Essay3661 Words   |  15 PagesTitle/Topic: Dream Interpretation General Purpose: An informative presentation. Specific Purpose: The purpose of this speech is to inform the audience about the deeper significance of dreams, with the goal of allowing them to find meaning in their own dreams. Thesis Statement: Dream interpretation is important because it allows us to see the exactly what a dream is, to find significance in our dreams, and to face our subconscious problems. INTRODUCTION II. (Reveal Topic) A dream is amazingRead MoreQuestions On Semantics And Pragmatics8833 Words   |  36 Pagesapplication of general principles of interpreting acts, applied to the Sub-case of communicative acts, and more particularly, Verbal communicative†.2 3) â€Å"Pragmatics studies how people comprehends and produces a communicative act or speech act in a concrete, a speech situation which is usually a conversation†.3 4) â€Å"Pragmatics is the study of the relation of signs to interpreters†. (Charles Morris 1938) 3 5) â€Å"Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choices of language in social interactionRead MoreQuestions and Answers Regarding Artificial Intelligence Essays2029 Words   |  9 PagesUnderstanding will be helpful in creation of new and informative intelligent tools for use in different industries and academia. Just as the invention of the internal combustion engine and the development of machines like airplanes resulted in unprecedented enhancement of the mobility of our species, the tools resulting from AI research are already beginning to extend human intellectual and creative capabilities in ways that our predecessors could only dream about. The evolutionaryRead MoreLanguage of Advertising and Communication Via Advertising16651 Words   |  67 Pages2.5. Comparative Advertising 31 2.6.Conclusion 33 Chapter 3. Pragmatic aspects of advertising 34 3.1. Pragmatics and Advertising 34 3.2. Concept of Appeal 37 3.3. Relational Aspects of Advertising 39 3.4. Speech Acts in Advertising 41 3.5. Conclusion 44 Conclusion 46 Bibliography 49 Appendix 52 Introduction The subject of this research is the analysis of the language of advertising and its relation to socialRead MoreLanguage of Advertising and Communication Via Advertising16638 Words   |  67 Pages23 2.5. Comparative Advertising 31 2.6.Conclusion 33 Chapter 3. Pragmatic aspects of advertising 34 3.1. Pragmatics and Advertising 34 3.2. Concept of Appeal 37 3.3. Relational Aspects of Advertising 39 3.4. Speech Acts in Advertising 41 3.5. Conclusion 44 Conclusion 46 Bibliography 49 Appendix 52 Introduction The subject of this research is the analysis of the language of advertising and its relation to social environmentRead MoreClassification of Literature3483 Words   |  14 Pageslanguage without rhyme or meter, either fiction or nonfiction.Prose is writing that resembles everyday speech. The word prose is derived from the Latin word, â€Å"prosa† which literally means straightforward. Prose is adopted for the discussion of facts and topical reading and does not adhere to any particular formal structures other than simple grammar. * Fiction  Ã¢â‚¬â€œisthe form of any  narrative  or  informative  work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or events that are not factual, but rather

Entrepreneur Small Business Management Free Essays

Small Business Management 1. I think that entrepreneurship can be taught, because many of us exactly students had no experience with business and wish to learn about it, not the fact that all people will work on the specialty, but all of them need money to live, and one way to reach this goal is entrepreneurship. When it is taught, we already know from what to begin and we study on another’s examples as it is possible to avoid some problems. We will write a custom essay sample on Entrepreneur: Small Business Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now On the other hand it depends on the person how he can use this knowledge from lesson more efficiently for his firm. . It seems to me that our collegiate entrepreneurs face a lot of barriers with schedule or time management, because they need to pass their course while they control their own businesses. Also when person launching his own business and it’s connected with producing product, he need demand for his product, but nowadays a lot of customers do not wish to take if the goods are not so known and many of them have got used to take the checked up goods. Another point of barriers is stuff of employees it should be very responsible people. Of course every collegiate entrepreneur faces some financial obstacle because many of them invest their money, and they want to recover their money quicker, hence many of them look for new highly paid job as they want to be independent. 3. One advantage that collegiate entrepreneurs can do it’s very useful experience for future because they need to analyze will be this project profitable, use knowledge involving accounting, finance, management, marketing and so on also at the beginning it’s interesting will be a boss. As a student entrepreneur can take suggestion from teachers who provide to him advantageous information. Also lots of young people is very risky and they don’t afraid of launching business and their mind more creative and more fashionable. 4. I think that university can organize some special club for those people who want to begin their own business and invite people who really work as entrepreneurs, who can share their own experience with the other people How to cite Entrepreneur: Small Business Management, Essays

Child prostitution and pornography in Southeast As Essay Example For Students

Child prostitution and pornography in Southeast As Essay ia Child pornography and prostitution are two of the most disturbing issues in the world today. Millions of children, in virtually every country in the world, become victims of sexual exploitation. Access to child pornography and prostitution in Southeast Asia has increased during the 1990s due to the lack of government legislation and enforcement protecting children. Japan is the worlds global leader of child pornography on the Internet, whereas Thailand is famous for its sex tourism industry. Most if the children who fall victims to this horrible industry are forced by their parents to help pay off the family debt. Child pornography is the consequence of the exploitation or sexual abuse against a child. It can be defined as any means of depicting or promoting sexual abuse of a child, centered on a sexual act or the genital organs of children. It exists in three main forms, visual, audio and text. It is put to use by pedophiles as a tool to lower a childs inhibitions and by showing other children in pornographic poses, entice that child into compromising situations. These children range from a few months old to 18 years of age. It is these photographs, videotapes, films and magazines of children in sexual poses and acts that make up the multimillion dollar global world of child pornography. (Missing Children, 1997). Although child prostitution has been around for thousands of years, it has only achieved widespread recognition in the last few decades. One reason for its increasing popularity, especially overseas, is the nave belief that sex with a juvenile prostitute is safer than sex with an adult prostitute. On the contrary, children are more prone to sexually transmitted diseases, such as gonorrhea and HIV/AIDS, than adults. These children are victims of the most overlooked form of child abuse; they are vulnerable and crave attention, affection and love. (Missing Children, 1997). Prostitution is illegal in Thailand. Nevertheless, like all crime, it exists. Sexual intercourse with a minor is statutory rape and is punishable by imprisonment. In 1996, Thai laws were strengthened by new legislation, which significantly increased the penalties for those caught engaging in sex with a minor. The law targets customers, procurers, pimps, and owners and operators of brothels as well as parents who sell their children. The Thai law also provides for prison terms of up to ten years and heavy fines for anyone convicted of being involved in international commercial sex trade. The new legislation eased restrictions on the police, making it easier for them to enter and search suspected brothels and make arrests. The Royal Thai Government works closely with government and law enforcement agencies in other countries and with international organizations to attack the problem from the outside. Part of these efforts is aimed at preventing known sex offenders and publishers of pornography from entering Thailand. The Government monitors the activities of tour agents abroad who promote sex tours, in an attempt to prevent their customers from entering the country. Those who engage in sexual activity with minors are subject to arrest and imprisonment. The Thai police increased surveillance of suspected child molesters and have made numerous arrests resulting in convictions and long-term prison sentences. Information is now given to all tourists visiting Thailand advising them of the law and the penalties for violating it. The Royal Thai Government is committed to ending the problem of child prostitution. (Royal Thai Embassy, 1997). Poverty is the most important factor contributing to the growth of child prostitution. The International Labour Organization says that since the Asian financial crisis 2 years ago, children have increasingly become involved in dangerous and illegal activities such as prostitution and drug trafficking. (BBC News, 1999). .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .postImageUrl , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:hover , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:visited , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:active { border:0!important; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:active , .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55 .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uccfa62e3900ab42e12a42c63342a0f55:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Equal Human Rights Essay UNICEF estimates that approximately 250,000 children are bought and sold for sex in Thailand alone. (BBC News, 1997). Many of these children do not see themselves as victims. Ten years ago parents forced most child prostitutes into it, now many volunteer. The victims are school children who want the money so they can live what they see as a luxurious lifestyle. (CNN, 1999) Japan is the worlds global-leader of child pornography on the Internet. Hundreds of pornographic images of children flood Internet sites with addresses ending in jp, .

Chinese Economic Reform (4504 words) Essay Example For Students

Chinese Economic Reform (4504 words) Essay Chinese Economic ReformTwo years after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, it became apparent to many ofChinas leaders that economic reform was necessary. During his tenure as Chinaspremier, Mao had encouraged social movements such as the Great Leap Forward andthe Cultural Revolution, which had had as their base ideologies such as servingthe people and maintaining the class struggle. By 1978 Chinese leaderswere searching for a solution to serious economic problems produced by HuaGuofeng, the man who had succeeded Mao Zedong as Chinese Communist Party (CCP)leader after Maos death (Shirk 35). Hua had demonstrated a desire tocontinue the ideologically based movements of Mao. Unfortunately, thesemovements had left China in a state where agriculture was stagnant,industrial production was low, and the peoples living standards had notincreased in twenty years (Nathan, Andrew J. Chinas Crisis pg. 200). Thislast area was particularly troubling. While the gross output value ofindustry and agricul ture increased by 810 percent and national income grew by420 percent between 1952 and 1980; average individual income increased by only100 percent (Ma Hong quoted in Shirk, Susan L. The Political Logicof Economic Reform in China. Berkeley pg. 28). However, attempts ateconomic reform in China were introduced not only due to some kind of generosityon the part of the Chinese Communist Party to increase the populaces livingstandards. It had become clear to members of the CCP that economic reform wouldfulfill a political purpose as well since the party felt, properly it would seemthat it had suffered a loss of support. As Susan L. Shirk describes thesituation in The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China, restoring theCCPs prestige required improving economic performance and raising livingstandards. The traumatic experience of the Cultural Revolution had erodedpopular trust in the moral and political virtue of the CCP. The partys leadersdecided to shift the base of party legitimacy from virtue to competence, and todo that they had to demonstrate that they could deliver the goods. This movementfrom virtue to competence seemed to mark a serious departure fromorthodox Chinese political theory. Confucius himself had posited in the fifthcentury BCE that those individuals who best demonstrated what he referred to asmoral force should lead the nation. Using this principle as a guide, China hadfor centuries attempted to choose at least its bureaucratic leaders byadministering a test to determine their moral force. After the Communisttakeover of the country, Mao continued this emphasis on moral force by demandingthat Chinese citizens demonstrate what he referred to as correctconsciousness. This correct consciousness could be exhibited, Maobelieved, by the way people lived. Needless to say, that which constitutedcorrect consciousness was often determined and assessed by Mao. Nevertheless,the ideal of moral force was still a potent one in China even after theCommunist ta keover. It is noteworthy that Shirk feels that the Chinese CommunistParty leaders saw economic reform as a way to regain their and their partysmoral virtue even after Maos death. Thus, paradoxically, by demonstrating theirexpertise in a more practical area of competence, the leaders of the CCP feltthey could demonstrate how they were serving the people. To be sure, the movetoward economic reform came about as a result of a changed domestic andinternational environment, which altered the leaderships perception of thefactors that affect Chinas national security and social stability (Xu,Zhiming. The Impact of Chinas Reform and Development on the OutsideWorld. pg. 247). But Shirk feels that, in those pre-Tienenmen days, such amove came about also as a result of an attempt by CCP leaders to demonstrate, ina more practical and thus less obviously ideological manner than Mao had done,their moral force. This is not to say that the idea of economic reform wasembraced enthusiastically by all members of the leadership of the ChineseCommunist Party in 1978. To a great extent, the issue of economic reform becamepoliticized as the issue was used as a means by Deng Xiaoping to attain theleadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Maos successor, Hua Guofeng, hadtried to prove himself a worthy successor to Mao by draping himself in themantle of Maoist tradition. His approach to economic development was orthodoxMaoism with an up-to-date, international twist (Shirk 35). This approachwas tied heavily to the development of Chinas oil reserves. When, in1978, estimates of the oil reserves were revised downward, commitments to importplants and expand heavy industry could not be sustained (Shirk 35). Dengtook advantage of this economic crisis to discredit Hua and aim for leadershipof the party. Reform policies became Dengs platform against Hua forpost-Mao leadership (Shirk 36). Given this history of economic reform, itis evident that under the present system economic questions arenece ssarily political questions (Dorn, James A. Pricing andProperty: The Chinese Puzzle. pg. 43). Once Deng and his faction hadprevailed, it was necessary for some sort of economic reform to evolve. Theinitial form the new economy took was not a radical one. China was still astate in which the central government retained the dominant power in economicresource allocation and responsible local officials worked for the interest ofthe units under their control (Solinger, Dorothy J. Chinas Transitionfrom Socialism: Statist Legacies and Market Reforms pg. 103). However, as timepassed, some basic aspects of the old system were altered either by design orvia the process of what might be called benign neglect. As Shirk points out, inrural areas, decollectivization was occurring: decision making power wasbeing transferred from collective production units (communes, brigades, andteams) to the family (38); purchase prices for major farm products wereincreased (39). In 1985, further reforms were int roduced. For example, long-termsales contracts between farmers and the government were established. Inaddition, in an effort to allow the market to determine prices, cityprices of fruit and vegetables, fish, meat, and eggs, were freed from governmentcontrols so they could respond to market demand (Shirk 39). Mostimportantly, a surge of private and collective industry and commerce inthe countryside (Shirk 39) occurred. This allowed a great percentage ofthe populace to become involved in private enterprise and investment in familyor group ventures. The conditions also allowed rural Chinese to leave thevillages and become involved in industry in urban centers (Shirk 40). Theeconomy grew so quickly that inflation occurred and the government had toreinstitute price controls. Chinas economy retains these characteristics ofpotential for growthand inflationto this day. Another important aspect ofChinese economic reform was the decision of China to join the world economy. Deng Xiaoping and his allies hoped to effect this 1979 resolution in two ways:by expanding foreign trade, and by encouraging foreign companies to invest inChinese enterprises. This policydenoted the Open Policy (Shirk47)was a drastic removal from the policies of Mao Zedong and, in fact, fromcenturies of Chinese political culture. The Open Policy, which designatedlimited areas in China as places with preferential conditions for foreigninvestment and bases for the development of exports (Nathan 99), wasextremely successful in the areas where it was implemented (Shirk 47). However,it was looked upon by many Chinese as nothing less than an avenue toeconomic dependency (Nathan 50). Indeed, when the policy was firstimplemented, many Chinese seemed to fear that Dengs policies were drawing Chinaback toward its former semi-colonial status as a market where theimperialist countries dump their goods, a raw material base, a repair andassembly workshop, and an investment center. (Nathan 51). It i sinteresting to note the symptoms of a national character that would subscribe tothe above sentiment. In an article written in 1981, just two years after theOpen Policy was first proposed, Andrew J. Nathan noted the almost pathologicalresistance to foreign intervention in the Chinese economy: Some Chinesefear that reliance on imported technology will encourage a dependent psychology Many Chinese perceive joint ventures as a costly form of acquisition. Somepeople worry: Wont we be suffering losses by letting foreigners make profits inour country?' (52). The Chinese were as vociferous about issues ofsovereignty. Nathan maintained that the Mao-led revolution, which culminated invictory in 1949, had been fueled by an intense patriotism: once Chinahad stood up, no infringement on its sovereignty, no matter how small, shouldbe permitted (53). These feelings were manifested in denying foreignbusinessmen long-term, multiple entry visas, resisting increased foreigneconomic contacts and alte ration of current ways of doing things, anddisinclination to become involved in government-to-government loans and jointventures lest Chinese become exploited in some way (Nathan 53-55). Given thesehesitancies on the part of the Chinese society vis-a-vis foreign relations, itis impressive that Deng and his allies were able initially to create andimplement the Open Policy since many members of the society at large wereresistant to becoming involved in a policy so antithetical to the Chinesenational character. However, once the successes of the Open Policy wereapparent, resistance to the plan by the populace waned. Moreover, given theconfluence of politics and economics in China, it seems apparent that somemembers of the CCP would also not be in favor of the plan. Nevertheless, theOpen Policy was implemented and has become instrumental in the success of theburgeoning Chinese economy. The implementation of the Open Policy was sosuccessful that by 1988 the leaders of the CCP were encour aged to create a newprogram called the coastal development strategy. In this program,even more of the country was opened up to foreign investmentan area that, atthe time, included nearly 200 million people. Moreover, by involving moreoverseas investors, importing both capital and raw materials, andexporting Chinas cheap excess labor power, the new policy was oneof export-led growth or export-oriented industrialization. It wasexplicitly modeled on the experiences of Taiwan and the other Asian smalldragons' (Nathan 99). One analyst has maintained that China nowstands at the threshold of the greatest opportunity in human history: a neweconomic era promising greater wealth and achievement than any previousepoch (Gilder 369). Illustrative of this optimistic feeling is Shanghai,an area that was designated for preferential conditions for foreign investmentand as a base for the development of exports in 1988. This city and environs inthe Yangtze Delta area have a population of approximately 400 million people andthe city has become the nations financial hub for international and nationalinvestors. For political reasons, this area was excluded from the original OpenPolicy designation in 1978, but is currently in the process of catching up withother areas so designated. Indeed, the increase in foreign investments in thelast two years is striking. The area received 3.3 billion dollars in foreigninvestments during the 1980s. The area received the same amount from foreigninvestments in 1992 alone. In only the first ten months of 1993, the area hadreceived over six billion dollars worth of foreign investments (Tyler, PatrickE. Economic Focus in Shanghai: Catching Up. sct. A8). Westernanalysts have asserted that the Open Policy and the coastal development strategyhave allowed Deng to entrench his political power (Shirk 47) and will allow hispower to be sustained even after death. If this is true, Deng should be verypopular in Shanghai. With its new designation, and with the billions of foreigndollars coming into the area, it has become necessary to improve the citysfacilities. To that end forty billion dollars worth of public works projectshave been allocated by the central government for Shanghai within the last year(Tyler A1). These public works projects include new sewers, a new water system,new gas lines, a new bridge, and extensive roadwork. Future plans include theconstruction of a second international airport, a container port, a new subwaysystem, and more roads and bridges (Tyler A8). China and foreign investors in ajoint venture are also rebuilding the financial district, which will feature anew stock exchange. By being designated for preferential conditions, Shanghaireceived from the central government tax exemptions for enterprises doingbusiness with foreign companies, tax holidays for new factories set up withforeign investments, and a bonded zonethe largest in Chinafor duty freeimports of raw materials. Shanghai now has all the trappings o f a modern city:discos, construction projects, and conspicuous consumption. In short, whererevered monuments and golden arches exist side by side (Riboud,Marc. China Leaps Upward. pg. 12), the appearance of the newShanghai does nothing less than signal the end of the ideological debateover Chinas free market experiments (Tyler A8). Shanghai has joined theranks of the modern metropolis. However, this is not necessarily a beneficialdevelopment. Inflation is rampant: prices have doubled in the industrial zonesin the last five years. Nevertheless, the fact that Shanghai currently possessesthe fifth most expensive office space in the world demonstrates that demand ishigh and that the prospects for future growth are promising (Tyler A8). Indeed,Pudong, a free export-manufacturing zone described as the future sight ofShanghais Manhattan (Tyler A8) boasts more than twenty factories built orbeing built with names like Siemens and Hitachi prominent. This area has becomeparticularly attractive to foreign investors and companies because of its taxconcessions, duty free imports of raw materials, and cheap labor. Shanghaistands to benefit, too, as it receives ancillary technology and discretionaryspending from the workers and executives of the companies represented (TylerA8). It is conditions like these that have caused at least one analyst topredict that China will be the richest economy in the world within thenext 25 years (Gilder 372). Shanghai is by no means unique to this growth. Airbags Essay14). Such non-compliance could make it difficult for China to become a foundingmember of the World Trade Organization, the successor to the General Agreementon Tariffs and Trade and the body that is intended to promote global free tradeby lowering tariffs and other barriers, which will be formally constituted onJanuary 1, 1994. (Gargan 14) The specific nature of the United States complainthas to do with Chinas pirating of musical compact disks, video laser disks andcomputer software. In fact, it is estimated that such pirating costs Americancompanies a billion dollars a year. This phenomenon seems to have to do with theChinese psychology as described by Nathan. In his 1981 essay he noted that Chinadid not wish to become a technological client of the west. The preferredsolution is to buy one item and copy it (Nathan 52). Clearly, this is notthe way trade works today. It is the United States position that China mustadhere to the rules of trade before it can be included i n a trade organization. Needless to say, exclusion from WTO would be disastrous for any country, butparticularly for an emerging market such as China. Even on a day to day basis,Chinas economic leaders seem unable to understand how some aspects of a marketeconomy work. In discussing the status of the Shanghai Stock Market, forexample, one stock dealer referred to it as crazy (StocksSurge D2). Moreover, American analysts have been amazed to discover in theShanghai market the lack of regulation and the poor disclosurerequirements. Some companies have been listed for two or three years and havenot issued an annual report (Hansell, D2). It is no wonder that Chineseinvestors become anxious about their investments. The issuance of shares in theShandong Huaneng Power Development Company also demonstrates the lack ofexpertise on the part of the Chinese in the modern world market. In fact,according to one Hong Kong investment analyst, the company wasnt reallya company. It was just a bunch of discrete plants that the y tied a bow aroundand wrote a prospectus on' (Zuckerman D6). The prospectus guaranteed afifteen percent annual return on investments. In fact, the return will no doubtbe less than that because of prevailing currency exchange rates and debt thatthe company will have to assume. To be sure, the problems of the ShandongHuaneng Power Development Company and the Shanghai Stock Exchange maydemonstrate only the problems of an immature economy. Nevertheless, if Chinawishes to become a viable member of the world economic community, suchshortcomings will have to be eliminated quickly. These apparent problems mayalso be the result of an economic system that is run by the state. Certainly,one thing that the CCP has attempted to do is create a market economy whileretaining a state controlled system. This structure may be possible but it doeshave its critics. Steven N.S. Cheung, in an essay written in 1989, argued forthe creation of private property by mandate (31), feeling thatprivatization in C hina would lead to necessary additional investment in thesocietys infrastructure and the establishment of a judicial system thatis based firmly on the principle of equality before the law (Cheung,Steven N.S. Privatization vs. Special Interests: The Experience of ChinasEconomic Reforms. pg. 32-250). Echoing Cheungs sentiments, James Dorn sawproblems in the areas of Chinese banking and finance. In this arrangement, Dornargued, the state controls the bulk of investment resources. The lack of aprivate capital market has handicapped economic development in China andhampered rational investment decision making (43). In order to become amodern economic state Dorn argued for the necessity of circumventingChinas ruling elite who oppose the dismantling of state monopolies andwho benefit from price fixing and non-price rationing (51). Xu Zhimingalso saw the necessity for a revamping of the Chinese system: We mustthrow off the traditional system completely (249) in order for economicreform to t hrive. Communist Party members, of course, articulate a differentposition. In a recent interview that appeared in the Beijing Review, Feng Bing,Deputy Secretary-General of the State Commission for Restructuring the EconomicSystem, spoke to the issue of economic reform in China. It is striking that Fengspoke of the benefits that the populace has received as a result of the economicreform now occurring in China. That is, his comments appeared to demonstrate thebeneficence, or the moral force, of the Chinese Communist Party vis-a-viseconomic reform. He noted that such reform involves the essence of socialism:to liberate and develop productive forces; to eradicate exploitation; toremove polarization; and to attain the goal of common prosperity(Official on Economic Reform. Beijing Review: pg. 12). Thus, CCPleaders still appear to see their roles as representatives of a moral force. CCPmembers and leaders wish economic reform not to be judged on just its practicalmerits, but also as an e ffect of the moral force of the leadership. Economicreform, then, becomes nothing less than a moral crusade and it is thus easy tosee why, for example, China has staked its national prestige on becoming afounding member of the World Trade Organization (Gargan, pg. 14). WillChina succeeds in taking its place among the nations of the world market? Willthe CCP succeed in retaining its political power given the drastic changes inthe societal makeup of China that are occurring due to the changing economicrealities? I would suggest that the chances are better for the former than forthe latter. Once the Chinese attain more sophistication relative tointernational and national markets, institute a more manageable banking system,and make a good faith effort to insure acceptable human rights, the country maywell become the richest economy in the world within the next 25years (Gilder pg. 372). However, whether or not these conditions can occurwithout a weakening of the state-controlled system i s problematic. The mostimpressive and far-reaching display of moral force by the CCP may well have tobe a voluntary reduction of its power over the people. Paradoxically, byweakening itself politically, the party may demonstrate its true moral force byliberating, politically and economically, one billion Chinese citizens. BibliographyBoeing Planning to Invest $100 Million for China Plant. New YorkTimes: 9 August 1994, D4. Bradsher, Keith. Bill to Restrict ChinasImports Loses in House. New York Times: 10 August 1994, A7. Cheung, StevenN.S. Privatization vs. Special Interests: The Experience of ChinasEconomic Reforms. Economic Reform in China: Problems and Prospects. Ed. James A. Dorn and Wang Xi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. 21-32. China cracks down on dissent after trade threat lifted, report says.Hartford Courant: 29 July 1994, A13. China Stock Is Most Active. NewYork Times: 5 August 1994, D5. Dorn, James A. Pricing and Property: TheChinese Puzzle. Economic Reform in China: Problems and Prospects. Ed. James A. Dorn and Wang Xi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. 39-61. Du Pont Plans Increase In Chinese Investment. New York Times: 10August 1994, D2. Gargan, Edward A. U.S. May Thwart Chinas TradeGoal. New York Times: 24 July 1994, 14. Gilder, George. Let aBillion Flowers Bloom. Economic Reform in China: Problems and Prospects. Ed. James A. Dorn and Wang Xi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. 369-374. Hansell, Saul. Chinese Stock Markets Bounce Back, Rising30%. 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